Music Communication Dictionary: Essential Studio Terminology

A Glossary of Terms and Phrases to Help Producers, Musicians, and Engineers Communicate Better in the Studio and Online

Music producers, musicians, and engineers all speak similar languages. But that doesn’t mean we always understand one another. Even experienced musicians and producers may find themselves misinterpreting each other's instructions, leading to frustrating revisions and delays. This dictionary lists standard terms and phrases used by musicians, producers, and engineers throughout each stage of music creation. Review each section before collaborating and improve your communication during remote recording sessions or in the studio.

Stages of Music Creation

The dictionary is divided into seven sections, each covering a different stage of the music creation process:

Pre-Production: Terminology related to song structure, arrangement ideas, reference tracks, and technical specifications.
Performance: Words for describing desired performance qualities, phrasing, dynamics, and feel.
Recording Setup: Terms for microphone placement, instrument selection, studio equipment, and signal processing.
Audio Quality: Language for describing the sound of a recording or song, like clarity, tone, and ambience.
Feedback and Revisions: Words for providing constructive criticism and requesting changes.
Mixing: Terms for balancing levels, EQ, effects, panning, etc.
Mastering: Vocab for the final polishing of the mix, ensuring consistency across speaker systems, and preparing the track for distribution.

You may notice that some of the same terms pop up across multiple sections. This is because some terms have different meanings depending on the context (e.g., 'vibrato' in musical performance vs. mixing) and some apply to more than one stage of music creation.

1. Pre-Production

Arrangement: The way musical elements are layered and organized in the song.
Chord: A combination of three or more notes played at the same time.
Countermelody: A secondary melody played alongside the main melody to add depth and interest to the arrangement.
Demo: A preliminary recording of a song, typically using basic instrumentation or arrangements, used to capture the core musical ideas and get feedback.
Fill: A musical embellishment added to a song to enhance rhythm, texture, or expression. Fills are typically used to indicate a section or motif is about to end or begin.
Form: The overall structure of the song (e.g., verse, chorus, bridge).
- Bridge: A contrasting section that breaks up the verse-chorus structure and sometimes introduces new musical ideas.
- Chorus: A recurring section in a song that features the main hook or theme, often with a singable melody and catchy lyrics.
- Hook: A catchy musical phrase or riff that grabs the listener's attention and is often repeated throughout the song.
- Interlude: A short section within an arrangement that serves as a transitional or connecting element between larger sections.
- Intro: A section at the beginning of a song that sets the stage for the main body of the composition. It typically introduces musical elements, establishes the mood and atmosphere, and grabs the listener's attention.
- Outro: The closing section of a song that brings the arrangement to a conclusion.
Groove: The rhythmic feel and interaction between instruments.
Instrumentation: The selection and arrangement of instruments or voices used to perform a piece of music, including considerations of tone color, range, and timbre.
Key Signature: A set of sharp (#) or flat (♭) symbols placed at the beginning of a musical staff, right after the clef, indicating the key of the piece. It defines which notes are consistently played as sharps or flats throughout the composition, establishing the tonality and scale on which the music is based.
Key: The main scale of a song. It sets the mood: major keys usually sound bright and happy, while minor keys sound darker and more somber.
Melody: The main tune of a song.
Meter: The number of beats in each measure (or bar) and how those beats are grouped and divided, typically shown through time signatures like 4/4, 3/4, or 6/8.
Modulation: The process of changing the key or tonal center within a musical arrangement, often used to create contrast, tension, or a sense of progression.
Motif: A short musical idea, phrase, or pattern that is repeated and developed throughout a piece of music.
Note: A symbol representing a specific pitch and duration. It is the basic building block of melody and harmony, and when combined with other notes, forms the melodies, chords, and rhythms that make up music.
Octave: An octave is the distance between two musical notes where the higher note has a frequency exactly double that of the lower note. In Western music, we use a set of note names—A, B, C, D, E, F, and G—which repeat every 12 half-steps. So, an octave spans 12 notes within this sequence before the pattern repeats itself and moves on to the next octave.
Orchestration: The art of arranging and assigning musical parts to different instruments or voices within a composition to achieve a desired sound or texture.
Reference Track: A song that serves as a sonic inspiration for a specific aspect of your song (e.g., drum groove, guitar tone).
Scale: A sequence of notes ordered by pitch, typically within an octave, that provides the foundational structure for a piece of music.
Scratch Track: A temporary recording of the song, often using basic sounds or instruments, to establish the song structure and arrangement before committing to final sounds.
Tempo: The speed of a song, measured in BPM (beats per minute).
Time Signature: A notation indicating the number of beats per measure and the type of note that gets one beat (e.g., 4/4 time signature - four beats per measure, with a quarter note getting one beat).
Topline: The melody and lyrics of a song, often written in the early stages of songwriting.
Voicing: The arrangement of notes or chords within a musical texture, particularly in relation to their spacing, order, and distribution across different registers or octaves.

2. Performance

ADSR (Attack, Decay, Sustain, Release) Envelope: Controls how a sound evolves over time.
- Attack: The initial phase of a note, representing the time it takes for the sound to reach its maximum level from the moment it's triggered. It determines how quickly the sound reaches its full intensity.
- Decay: Following the attack, the sound gradually decreases in amplitude to a specified sustain level. This stage controls the time it takes for the sound to transition from its peak level to the sustained level.
- Sustain: Once the decay phase is complete, the sound remains at a steady level until the note is released. This stage represents the level at which the sound is held for the duration of the note's sustain.
- Release: When the note is released, the sound fades out over time until it reaches silence. The release stage determines the duration of this fade-out process, controlling how quickly or slowly the sound disappears after the note is no longer being played.
Articulation: The way a note is played, such as legato, staccato, or marcato (accented).
- Legato: Smoothly connected notes, where one note overlaps the beginning of the next.
- Staccato: Short, detached notes with space in between.
- Accented: Emphasis placed on a specific note or phrase.
Bend (or Pitch Bend): To gradually raise or lower the pitch of a note.
Breathing Room: Leaving space between notes or phrases to create a sense of air and openness in the performance.
Chord: A combination of three or more notes played at the same time.
Dynamics: The variation in volume throughout a performance (e.g., soft, loud).
- Crescendo: Gradual increase in volume.
- Diminuendo: Gradual decrease in volume.
- Sforzando (sfz): Sudden strong accent.
- Piano (p): Soft.
- Mezzo Forte (mf): Medium loud.
- Forte (f): Loud.
Expression: The emotional quality of a performance.
Feel: The overall mood or groove of the music (e.g., laid-back, energetic).
- Tight: Precise and well-rehearsed.
- Loose: Relaxed and laid-back.
- Swung: A bouncy, uneven groove. Instead of dividing beats into equal halves, the first note in a pair is lengthened, and the second note is shortened, creating a long-short, long-short pattern.
Fill: A musical embellishment added to a song to enhance rhythm, texture, or expression. Fills are typically used to indicate a section or motif is about to end or begin.
Ghost Notes: Softly played notes that add rhythmic texture without being fully articulated.
Hammer-on: To strike a string without plucking it to produce a note.
Harmony: The combination of different notes played at the same time.
In the Pocket: A term used to describe a performance or groove that is rhythmically solid, tight, and well-synced with the overall feel and tempo of the music.
Interval: The distance between two notes.
Key Signature: A set of sharp (#) or flat (♭) symbols placed at the beginning of a musical staff, right after the clef, indicating the key of the piece. It defines which notes are consistently played as sharps or flats throughout the composition, establishing the tonality and scale on which the music is based.
Key: The main scale of a song.
Note: A symbol representing a specific pitch and duration. It is the basic building block of melody and harmony, and when combined with other notes, forms the melodies, chords, and rhythms that make up music.
Nuance: Subtle variations in dynamics, phrasing, and articulation that add depth and expression to a performance.
Octave: An octave is the distance between two musical notes where the higher note has a frequency exactly double that of the lower note. In Western music, we use a set of note names—A, B, C, D, E, F, and G— which repeat every 12 half-steps. So, an octave spans 12 notes within this sequence before the pattern repeats itself and moves on to the next octave.
Phrasing: The way musical notes are grouped and articulated within a melody or rhythm.
Portamento (or Glide): A musical technique where the pitch smoothly transitions from one note to another, creating a continuous sliding effect between pitches. This technique is often used in synthesizers and electronic music to create expressive and fluid melodic lines.
Scale: A sequence of notes ordered by pitch, typically within an octave, that provides the foundational structure for a piece of music.
Slide: To move the finger up or down the fretboard while playing a string to produce a different note.
Syncopation: Accenting/emphasizing the notes or chords that fall off the beat to create a sense of rhythmic tension and release.
Tempo: The speed of a song, measured in BPM (beats per minute).
Time Signature: A notation indicating the number of beats per measure and the type of note that gets one beat (e.g., 4/4 time signature - four beats per measure, with a quarter note getting one beat).
Vibrato: To rapidly vary the pitch of a note to create a wavering sound.

3. Recording Setup

Audio Interface: A hardware device that connects audio sources, such as microphones and instruments, to a computer, allowing for high-quality recording, playback, and processing of audio signals.
Click Track: A metronome track used to ensure consistent tempo during recording.
Compression: The process of reducing the dynamic range of a signal.
- Threshold: The level at which the compressor starts to reduce gain.
- Ratio: The amount of gain reduction applied above the threshold.
- Attack: How quickly the compressor starts to reduce gain after the signal exceeds the threshold.
- Release: How quickly the compressor stops reducing gain after the signal falls below the threshold.
Direct Input (DI): A way to capture the signal of an instrument without using a microphone.
DAW (Digital Audio Workstation): Software used for recording, editing, mixing, and producing audio files. It provides tools and features for manipulating audio and MIDI data, arranging musical compositions, applying effects and processing, and ultimately creating professional-quality music or audio productions.
EQ (Equalization): Adjusting the tonal balance of an audio signal. EQ is used to boost or cut certain frequencies in a mix.
- Boosting: Increasing the level of a specific frequency band.
- Cutting: Reducing the level of a specific frequency band.
- Bandpass Filter (BPF): Allows only a specific range of frequencies to pass through, while weakening frequencies outside that range.
- High-pass filter (HPF): Removes low frequencies (e.g., rumble from a kick drum).
- Low-pass filter (LPF): Removes high frequencies (e.g., harshness from a cymbal).
Headroom: The amount of space between the peak level of a signal and the maximum level it can reach without clipping (distortion).
Mic Placement: The position of a microphone relative to the sound source (e.g., close mic, room mic).
- Close Miking: Placing the microphone very close to the sound source for a focused and detailed sound (e.g., close mic on a guitar cabinet).
- Coincident Pair: Two microphones positioned very close together to capture a stereo image with minimal phase cancellation (e.g., XY stereo technique for acoustic guitar).
- Mid-Side Miking: A technique using two microphones: a cardioid microphone pointed at the sound source (Mid) and a figure-eight microphone facing sideways (Side). During mixing, the signals from these two microphones are combined and decoded to create a stereo image, allowing for precise control over the stereo width and depth of the recording.
- Mono Miking: Using a single microphone to capture audio from a single point or direction, resulting in a more focused and direct sound image.
- Overhead Miking: Placing microphones above the sound source to capture a stereo image or overall sound (e.g., overhead mics for a drum kit).
- Room Miking: Placing the microphone further away from the sound source to capture the natural ambience of the room (e.g., room mic for drums).
- Stereo Miking: Using two or more microphones to capture audio from multiple directions or perspectives, creating a sense of spaciousness and depth in the recorded sound.
Latency: The time delay between a musician or artist’s performance and when they hear it in their headphones during recording. Too much latency can mess with the performer’s timing, so it is crucial that any digital processing is removed during recording.
Monitoring: The process of listening to the recorded audio while it is being recorded or played back.
Multitrack Recording: Using two or more microphones (or direct inputs) to record a single instrument or vocalist. With multitrack recording, each microphone is assigned to its own track or channel and is positioned to capture different aspects of the source. This allows for independent control and adjustment of each microphone's contribution during mixing and editing, enabling greater flexibility and precision in shaping the final recorded sound.
Noise Floor: The level of background noise present in a recording or audio system, representing the sum of all unwanted signals and electronic noise. Any audio signal below the noise floor is typically inaudible or obscured by the noise.
Preamplifier (or Preamp): A piece of hardware that amplifies weak signals from microphones, instruments, or other audio sources to a level suitable for further processing or recording. Preamplifiers are often included as built-in components in audio interfaces, where they boost the signal strength before it is converted to digital format.
Plugin: A software module used to process audio signals (e.g., EQ, reverb) that works within DAWs.
Recording Chain: The series of interconnected recording gear, hardware, and processing used to capture and record sound. This typically includes the sound source (such as a voice or instrument), microphones, preamplifiers, audio interfaces or mixing consoles, outboard gear (like compressors and equalizers), and recording devices or digital audio workstations (DAWs).
Signal Flow: Signal flow refers to the path an audio signal takes from its source (such as a microphone or instrument) through various processing stages (like preamps, equalizers, and effects) to its final destination (such as a recorder, mixer, or speakers). Understanding signal flow is crucial for troubleshooting and optimizing audio setups.
Signal Splitter: A piece of hardware that takes a single audio signal and divides it into multiple outputs, allowing the signal to be sent to different destinations (like an amplifier and an audio interface) simultaneously.

4. Audio Quality

Ambience: The background sound captured in the recording.
Artifacts: Unwanted sounds, such as clicks, pops, hum, or digital distortion, introduced during the recording or processing of audio.
Boxy: Audio that sounds confined or lacks spaciousness, typically due to poor room acoustics.
Bright: Audio with an emphasis on high frequencies, which can sound airy or sparkly.
Clarity: The cleanness and definition of the sound.
Clipping: This occurs when the audio signal exceeds the maximum level that can be accurately represented by the recording equipment or digital system. This results in distortion and the flattening or "clipping" of the waveform, leading to a harsh, unpleasant sound characterized by audible distortion artifacts.
Dissonant: Harsh or clashing sounds.
Dynamic Range: The difference between the quietest and loudest parts of an audio signal.
Frequency: The pitch of a sound, measured in hertz (Hz).
Frequency Response: How accurately a microphone, speaker, or audio system reproduces different frequencies across the audible spectrum. A neutral or linear frequency response will result in an accurate representation of a sound source. This means the microphone or speaker amplifies all audible frequencies (typically 20 Hz to 20 kHz) equally, without boosting or attenuating any particular frequency range.
Harsh: Audio with an unpleasant emphasis on high frequencies, often caused by microphone placement, untreated spaces, or processing choices.
Headroom: The amount of space between the peak level of a signal and the maximum level it can reach without clipping (distortion).
Muddy: Audio that lacks definition and clarity, often due to an overabundance of low or low-mid frequencies.
Noise Floor: The quietest level of background noise present in a recording.
Phase: The relationship between two or more sound waves. When waveforms are in phase, their peaks and troughs align, reinforcing the signal. When they are out of phase, their peaks and troughs misalign, canceling or attenuating certain frequencies.
Phase Issues (or Out of Phase): When audio signals from multiple sources, such as microphones or instruments, are not perfectly aligned in time, cancellations or build-ups of certain frequencies can occur. This can lead to a loss of clarity, a change in tonal balance, or even complete signal cancellation in extreme cases.
Pitch: The perceived highness or lowness of a sound.
Proximity Effect: The increase in bass or low-frequency response as a sound source moves closer to a directional microphone.
Punch: The transient impact of a sound, particularly in drums and percussion.
Room Reverb:
- Dead Room: A space with a high amount of sound absorption, minimizing reflections and resulting in a dry, isolated sound. This can be helpful for situations where excessive room ambience is undesirable.
- Live Room: A space with minimal sound absorption, allowing for prominent natural reflections. This can be ideal for certain instruments like drums or vocals that benefit from some ambience.
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR): A measurement (expressed in decibels, dB) that compares the level of the desired audio signal to the level of background noise. A higher SNR indicates a cleaner and clearer recording.
Texture: How the various sounds and instruments interact and combine to create the overall feel or thickness of a piece.
Timbre: The unique tonal quality of an instrument or voice.
Tone: The overall character of the sound, such as bright, warm, or dark.
Transparency: Audio that sounds natural and uncolored. An accurate representation of the original sound source.
Warm: Audio with a pleasant emphasis on low frequencies, which can sound rich and full-bodied.

5. Feedback and Revisions

Articulation: The clarity and definition of individual notes.
Arrhythmic: Not in rhythm.
Comping: Selecting the best parts of multiple takes to create a final performance.
Dynamics: The variation in volume throughout a performance (e.g., soft, loud).
- Crescendo: Gradual increase in volume.
- Diminuendo: Gradual decrease in volume.
- Sforzando (sfz): Sudden strong accent.
- Piano (p): Soft.
- Mezzo Forte (mf): Medium loud.
- Forte (f): Loud.
Feel: The overall mood or groove of the music (e.g., laid-back, energetic).
- Tight: Precise and well-rehearsed.
- Loose: Relaxed and laid-back.
- Swung: A bouncy, uneven groove. Instead of dividing beats into equal halves, the first note in a pair is lengthened, and the second note is shortened, creating a long-short, long-short pattern.
Groove: The rhythmic feel and interaction between instruments.
In the pocket: A term used to describe a performance or groove that is rhythmically solid, tight, and well-synced with the overall feel and tempo of the music.
Muffled: Playing too softly.
Off-mic: Not close enough to the microphone.
Out of Time: Not playing in sync with the rest of the instruments on the track.
Overdub: Recording a new track over an existing track.
Phrasing: The way musical notes are grouped and articulated within a melody or rhythm.
Proximity Effect: The increase in bass or low-frequency response as a sound source moves closer to a directional microphone.
Punch-in: Recording a specific section of a performance to replace an unwanted section in the original take.
Tightness: How well the musician locks in with the rhythm section and other instruments.
Timbre: The unique tonal quality of an instrument or voice.
Timing: The accuracy of the performance relative to the tempo and other instruments.
Tone: The overall character of the sound, such as bright, warm, or dark.
Tuning: Whether the instrument itself is in tune with the rest of the song.
- Flat: Below in pitch.
- Sharp: Above in pitch.

6. Mixing

A/B Comparison: Listening to two different versions of a mix (e.g., with and without a specific effect) to determine which one sounds better.
Automation: The process of programming changes in parameters over time within a digital audio workstation (DAW). This can include adjustments to volume, panning, effects, and other settings, allowing for dynamic and precise control of the mix and sound throughout a track.
Balance: The overall level of each instrument or voice in a mix.
Blend: How well the different instruments and voices in a mix sound together.
Bus (alternatively spelled Buss): A channel that allows multiple audio signals to be grouped together and processed collectively. Busses are used to route signals from multiple tracks or channels to a common destination, such as an effects processor or the master output. This enables the application of processing, such as EQ, compression, or effects, to multiple signals simultaneously, helping to create cohesion and balance in a mix.
Compression: The process of reducing the dynamic range of a signal.
- Threshold: The level at which the compressor starts to reduce gain.
- Ratio: The amount of gain reduction applied above the threshold.
- Attack: How quickly the compressor starts to reduce gain after the signal exceeds the threshold.
- Release: How quickly the compressor stops reducing gain after the signal falls below the threshold.
DAW (Digital Audio Workstation): Software used for recording, editing, mixing, and producing audio files. It provides tools and features for manipulating audio and MIDI data, arranging musical compositions, applying effects and processing, and ultimately creating professional-quality music or audio productions.
Delay: Creates echoes by duplicating the signal and delaying its arrival time.
- Analog Delay: Creates echoes using analog circuitry, often employing bucket brigade devices (BBDs) to achieve the delay effect. BBDs work by passing the audio signal through a series of capacitors, creating a time delay that results in warm, organic-sounding repeats.
- Digital Delay: Creates echoes by using digital signal processing (DSP) to record and playback the audio signal at specified intervals. Unlike analog delays, digital delays offer precise control over delay time, feedback, and other parameters, allowing for clean, accurate repeats without the signal degradation typical of analog delays.
- Ping-Pong Delay: The delayed signal alternates between the left and right speaker with each repetition, creating a ping-pong effect.
- Stereo Delay: Creates two separate echoes, one panned to the left speaker and one panned to the right, widening the stereo image.
- Tape Delay: Creates echoes by recording sound onto magnetic tape and then playing it back at varying intervals. This technique produces warm, natural-sounding repeats and can add depth and character to the audio signal.
Digital Signal Processing (DSP): The manipulation of audio signals using digital algorithms and techniques to modify, enhance, or analyze sound. Thanks to DSP, effects like reverb, equalization, and compression can be applied to audio with a computer.
Distortion: Introduces controlled amounts of harmonic saturation or clipping for a distorted sound (e.g., overdrive, fuzz).
- Bit Crusher: An effect that simulates the lo-fi sound of low-bit-rate digital audio, adding a gritty and vintage character.
- Fuzz: An effect that clips the audio signal in a harsh and pronounced manner, creating a thick and sustaining sound with pronounced harmonic overtones. This creates more intense distortion with a buzzy or fuzzy character.
- Overdrive: An effect that increases the gain or volume beyond its normal level to intentionally distort the signal. This creates a warm, gritty, and compressed tone characterized by smooth clipping of the waveform.
- Saturation: In contrast to the other forms of distortion, saturation tends to enrich the harmonic content of the audio signal without introducing harsh or obvious distortion artifacts. It adds depth, warmth, and character to audio signals, often associated with analog equipment and tube amplifiers.
- Tube Distortion: An effect that emulates the warm and smooth distortion characteristics of vintage tube amplifiers.
Effects Processing: The use of various audio effects to alter and enhance the sound of a recording or live performance. These effects can be applied using plugins in digital audio workstations (DAWs) or through external hardware units. Common effects include reverb, delay, compression, equalization, modulation effects (such as chorus and flanger), and distortion, all of which shape the tone, texture, and dynamics of the audio signal.
EQ (Equalization): Adjusting the tonal balance of an audio signal. EQ is used to boost or cut certain frequencies in a mix.
- Boosting: Increasing the level of a specific frequency band.
- Cutting: Reducing the level of a specific frequency band.
- Bandpass Filter (BPF): Allows only a specific range of frequencies to pass through, while weakening frequencies outside that range.
- High-pass filter (HPF): Removes low frequencies (e.g., rumble from a kick drum).
- Low-pass filter (LPF): Removes high frequencies (e.g., harshness from a cymbal).
Gain Staging: Setting the level of each signal at each stage of the mixing process to avoid unwanted noise or distortion.
Gate: Processing that cuts off a signal below a certain threshold.
Glue (or Glued): The unified sound achieved by routing multiple audio tracks or elements through a common processing chain. This processing can include compression, saturation, or other dynamics processing that helps blend the individual tracks together and create a more cohesive and balanced mix.
Headroom: The amount of space between the peak level of a signal and the maximum level it can reach without clipping (distortion).
In the Box: The process of producing, mixing, and mastering music entirely within a digital audio workstation (DAW) or computer-based environment, using software plugins and virtual instruments.
Limiting: Similar to compression, but with a very high ratio (almost infinite) to prevent the signal from exceeding a certain level (clipping).
Mix Bus (alternatively spelled Mix Buss): The bus that aggregates all the audio signals in a mix before they are sent to the master output. Any processing applied to the mix bus affects the entire mix.
Modulation Effects: Audio effects that systematically vary certain parameters of an audio signal over time to create depth and movement in the sound. Examples of modulation effects include chorus, flanger, phaser, tremolo, and vibrato, each producing distinctive changes to the timbre, pitch, or spatial characteristics of the audio signal.
- Chorus: A modulation effect that creates a thicker, lusher sound by duplicating the signal and slightly detuning it.
- Flanger: A modulation effect that duplicates the incoming signal, delays one copy by a small, varying amount, and then mixes it back with the original signal. This creates a comb-filtering effect with distinct, swirling, jet-plane-like sounds, often described as "whooshing" or "swooshing."
- Phaser: A modulation effect that splits the signal into two or more paths, modulates the phase of one path, and then combines them back together. This creates a swirling, sweeping sound with notches and peaks in the frequency spectrum, often described as "spacey" or "watery."
- Tremolo: A modulation effect that varies the volume of an audio signal at a regular rate. It produces a rhythmic pulsating sound by cyclically increasing and decreasing the signal's amplitude, creating a dynamic and pulsating effect.
- Vibrato: A modulation effect that varies the pitch of an audio signal at a regular rate. It produces a subtle, pulsating variation in pitch, typically used to add expressiveness and depth to a musical performance, especially in vocals and string instruments.
Out of the Box: The process of producing, mixing, and mastering music with hardware devices such as outboard effects processors, analog synthesizers, and mixing consoles.
Panning: The placement of a sound in the stereo image.
Plugin: A software module used to process audio signals (e.g., EQ, reverb) that works within DAWs.
Quantization: A process that corrects slight timing errors in performed musical notes, ensuring they align precisely with the underlying musical structure.
Rough Mix: The process of bringing all the recorded tracks together to get a basic balance and a preliminary stereo image. Minimal processing and editing is applied. Rather, this stage is more for setting levels and adding basic effects. By listening to a rough mix, musicians and producers can make informed decisions about the direction of the song before moving on to mixing. This might involve adding or removing instruments, changing the arrangement, or refining specific sections.
Routing: The process of guiding audio signals from different sources, like tracks or channels, to specific destinations within a mixing setup. This includes deciding the path each signal takes, what processing or effects it undergoes, and where it ends up. Routing offers flexibility in organizing and adjusting audio signals during mixing, allowing tasks like adjusting levels, adding effects, and creating submixes for further processing.
Reverb (short for Reverberation): The persistence of sound in an acoustic environment after the sound source has stopped, caused by reflections of the sound off surfaces. When used as an effect, reverb adds depth, spaciousness, and realism to audio recordings by simulating the acoustic environment of an actual room or space.
- Digital Reverb: Uses digital signal processing (DSP) algorithms to simulate the reverberation of various acoustic spaces, offering a wide range of reverberation types, including halls, rooms, plates, and chambers.
- Hall Reverb: Models the reverberation found in large concert halls or auditoriums, providing spacious and immersive reflections with longer decay times.
- Plate Reverb: Emulates the sound of vintage plate reverbs, which use a large metal plate suspended in a frame to create reflections. Plate reverbs are known for their smooth, dense sound.
- Room Reverb: Simulates the natural reverberation found in different types of rooms, such as small rooms, concert halls, or chambers.
- Spring Reverb: Replicates the sound of vintage spring reverbs, which use coiled springs to create reverberation. Spring reverbs have a lively sound with a characteristic "boing" or "twang."
Soundstage: The imaginary three-dimensional space created by the placement of sounds within a stereo mix.
Stems: Individual audio tracks or groups of audio tracks (e.g., drums, guitars) exported as sub-mixes for easier processing during the collaborative mixing process.
Stereo Image: The perceived placement of instruments and vocals across the stereo field (left and right speakers).
Stereo Width: The perceived width of the soundstage in a stereo mix.
Vocal Tuning (like Auto-Tune): The process of adjusting the pitch of a recorded vocal performance.

7. Mastering

Automation: The process of programming changes in parameters over time within a digital audio workstation (DAW). This can include adjustments to volume, panning, effects, and other settings, allowing for dynamic and precise control of the mix and sound throughout a track.
Balance: The overall level of each instrument or voice in a mix.
Blend: How well the different instruments and voices in a mix sound together.
Bit Depth: The number of bits used to represent each sample in a digital audio signal. It determines the dynamic range and resolution of the audio data, with higher bit depths allowing for more precise representation of amplitude variations and greater fidelity in audio reproduction. Common bit depths include 16-bit, 24-bit, and 32-bit, with higher bit depths generally resulting in higher-quality audio recordings.
Compression: The process of reducing the dynamic range of a signal.
- Threshold: The level at which the compressor starts to reduce gain.
- Ratio: The amount of gain reduction applied above the threshold.
- Attack: How quickly the compressor starts to reduce gain after the signal exceeds the threshold.
- Release: How quickly the compressor stops reducing gain after the signal falls below the threshold.
DAW (Digital Audio Workstation): Software used for recording, editing, mixing, and producing audio files. It provides tools and features for manipulating audio and MIDI data, arranging musical compositions, applying effects and processing, and ultimately creating professional-quality music or audio productions.
Digital Signal Processing (DSP): The manipulation of audio signals using digital algorithms and techniques to modify, enhance, or analyze sound. Thanks to DSP, effects like reverb, equalization, and compression can be applied to audio with a computer.
Effects Processing: The use of various audio effects to alter and enhance the sound of a recording. These effects can be applied using plugins in digital audio workstations (DAWs) or through external hardware units. Common mastering effects include compression, equalization, stereo imaging, harmonic saturation, and limiting, among others.
EQ (Equalization): Adjusting the tonal balance of an audio signal. EQ is used to boost or cut certain frequencies in a mix.
- Boosting: Increasing the level of a specific frequency band.
- Cutting: Reducing the level of a specific frequency band.
- Bandpass Filter (BPF): Allows only a specific range of frequencies to pass through, while weakening frequencies outside that range.
- High-pass filter (HPF): Removes low frequencies (e.g., rumble from a kick drum).
- Low-pass filter (LPF): Removes high frequencies (e.g., harshness from a cymbal).
Final Mix (or Pre-Master): The stereo audio file provided by the mixing engineer to the mastering engineer for the purpose of final processing and preparation for distribution. The final mix represents the culmination of the mixing engineer's work, combining all individual tracks and elements into a cohesive stereo mix. The mastering engineer's role is to further refine the mixed track, ensuring it meets technical standards for various platforms and translates well across various playback systems.
Glue (or Glued): The unified sound achieved by routing multiple audio tracks or elements through a common processing chain. This processing can include compression, saturation, or other dynamics processing that helps blend the individual tracks together and create a more cohesive and balanced mix.
In the Box: The process of producing, mixing, and mastering music entirely within a digital audio workstation (DAW) or computer-based environment, using software plugins and virtual instruments.
Limiting: Similar to compression, but with a very high ratio (almost infinite) to prevent the signal from exceeding a certain level (clipping). In mastering, limiting is used to control the peak levels of a mix, ensuring that the audio does not distort or clip when played back on different systems. It helps maximize the track's overall loudness without compromising its dynamic range, providing a polished and consistent final product.
Match EQ: A plugin that analyzes the average frequency content of an audio file to be compared with a mix. This information can then be used to make adjustments and match the frequency response of the mix to the original audio. In mastering, Match EQ is commonly used to compare the frequency response of the mix to a reference track.
Master Track (also known as the Master Output or Master Fader): The final audio channel in a digital audio workstation (DAW) or mixing console. It represents the combined output of all tracks and buses in the project, serving as the endpoint where the fully mixed and processed audio is routed. Processing applied to the master track typically includes mastering effects such as EQ, compression, limiting, and stereo imaging effects.
Mix Bus (alternatively spelled Mix Buss): The bus that aggregates all the audio signals in a mix before they are sent to the master output. Any processing applied to the mix bus affects the entire mix.
Out of the Box: The process of producing, mixing, and mastering music with hardware devices such as analog synthesizers, outboard effects processors, and mixing consoles.
Plugin: A software module used to process audio signals (e.g., EQ, reverb) that works within DAWs.
Reference Track: A professionally produced audio track that serves as a benchmark or point of comparison for evaluating the tonal balance, dynamics, and overall sound quality of a mix being mastered. Reference tracks are typically chosen for their sonic characteristics, such as clarity, punch, and balance, and are used by mastering engineers as a reference point to guide their adjustments and ensure that the final master achieves a similar level of quality.
Routing: The direction the audio signal takes through various processing chains and equipment within a mastering studio setup.
Sample Rate: The frequency at which samples are taken from an audio signal, measured in kilohertz (kHz) (e.g., 44.1 kHz, 48 kHz, 96 kHz). A higher sample rate means more samples are taken per second, resulting in a more accurate representation of the original analog audio waveform.
Saturation: The use of analog hardware or digital emulation plugins to subtly enrich the harmonic content of the audio signal without introducing harsh or obvious distortion artifacts. Saturation adds depth, warmth, and character to audio signals, often associated with analog equipment and tube amplifiers.
Soundstage: The imaginary three-dimensional space created by the placement of sounds within a stereo mix.
Stereo Image: The perceived placement of instruments and vocals across the stereo field (left and right speakers).
Stereo Imaging Effects: Processing techniques used to adjust and enhance the spatial characteristics of audio signals within the stereo field. These effects aim to create a sense of width, depth, and placement of sound sources within the stereo mix, contributing to a more immersive and engaging listening experience. Common stereo imaging effects include:
- Haas Effect: Introducing a slight delay between the left and right channels to create the perception of spaciousness and depth without altering the overall balance of the mix.
- Mid-Side Processing: Manipulating the mid (center) and side (stereo) components of the audio separately to control the balance and spatial width of the mix.
- Stereo Widening: Expanding the stereo width of audio to create a broader sense of space and separation between elements in the mix.
Stereo Width: The perceived width of the soundstage in a stereo mix.
Tape Emulation: The use of analog hardware or digital emulation plugins to replicate the sonic characteristics and coloration imparted by analog tape recording systems. Tape emulation aims to recreate the warmth, saturation, compression, and subtle harmonic distortion associated with vintage tape machines.
Target Platforms: The specific distribution channels and playback systems the final master is being prepared for. These platforms can include streaming services (such as Spotify and Apple Music), physical media (such as CDs and vinyl records), and broadcast formats (such as radio and television). Each target platform may have its own technical requirements, loudness standards, and format specifications, which mastering engineers must consider to ensure optimal playback quality and consistency across all intended listening environments.